The right to housing is a topic of extreme importance in Brazil and globally. In Brazil, this right is guaranteed by the Federal Constitution of 1988 and is considered a common competence of the Union, states and municipalities. The responsibility attributed to these governmental spheres is to promote housing construction programs and improvements in housing conditions and basic sanitation.

The inclusion of the right to housing as one of the social rights of citizens was expanded by Constitutional Amendment No. 26/2000, representing a significant milestone for meeting housing demands by the government. This change was fundamental to break with the previous system, established in 1964 by the National Housing Bank (BNH).

The old BNH system focused mainly on the number of homes, neglecting essential services related to urban infrastructure. Many housing developments were built on the outskirts of cities, without adequate access to transport, schools, health services and other basic needs. Although the BNH has played an important role in increasing the number of homes, it has failed to provide essential services to guarantee a dignified life for residents.

With the paradigm shift, Brazil began to seek a more comprehensive approach, considering not only the quantity of housing, but also the quality and integration of these housing in urban areas. The objective is to guarantee not only the right to a roof, but also to an adequate urban environment, with basic infrastructure, access to public services and opportunities for human development.

In the global context, the right to housing is also a relevant issue. Many countries face similar challenges in providing adequate housing for their populations. The lack of decent housing affects millions of people around the world, leading to precarious living conditions, insecurity, social exclusion and poverty.

International bodies such as the United Nations have worked to promote the right to housing as part of human rights. In 2015, the UN established the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which include the goal of ensuring access to safe, adequate and affordable housing for all by 2030.

The importance of the right to housing in Brazil and globally lies in its direct connection with other fundamental rights, such as the right to health, education, decent work and security.

In Africa, as in other developing regions of the world, housing is a significant challenge. It is estimated that around 200 million Africans live in informal settlements, where housing conditions are precarious and there is often no adequate access to basic services such as electricity and sanitation.

Rapid urbanization and population growth have contributed to the increased demand for housing in Africa. Many people migrate from rural areas to cities in search of better economic opportunities, which results in an accelerated and disorderly growth of urban areas. However, governments are often unable to keep up with this demand, leading to the emergence of informal settlements, where people build their own homes without the support of the necessary infrastructure.

Furthermore, widespread poverty and lack of access to housing finance make it even more difficult for many Africans to obtain decent housing. High urban land prices and a lack of effective housing policies also contribute to the shortage of affordable housing.

However, there is an additional challenge when it comes to housing in Africa: environmental sustainability. The housing sector is responsible for a significant portion of global greenhouse gas emissions and the intensive use of natural resources. This is due, in part, to poor building practices and a lack of efficient building and energy use standards.

In India, the situation of homelessness is a significant and complex challenge. According to data from the Indian government, there are 2.7 million homeless people in urban areas of the country. However, the Land Rights and Housing Network argues that this number is 48% higher, amounting to around four million people.

The discrepancy in numbers reflects the difficulty in obtaining accurate data on the homeless population. Many homeless people live in invisible conditions and are excluded by society, which makes it difficult to account for them properly. The lack of a clear and comprehensive definition of the term “homeless person” also contributes to the underestimation of the numbers.

Homelessness in India is influenced by a number of complex factors, including poverty, unemployment, uncontrolled migration, lack of access to affordable housing and social inequality. Many homeless people are rural migrants who seek opportunities in urban areas, but end up lacking the resources and support needed to find adequate housing.

The global housing situation is a complex challenge that affects millions of people around the world. Although the right to housing is internationally recognized as a basic human right, the reality is that many people face difficulties in obtaining adequate and affordable housing.

Insecurity of tenure is also a common issue, where people are displaced from their homes due to conflict, natural disasters or unfair evictions. Moreover, it is not limited only to the absence of a ceiling. Many people face conditions of overcrowding, living in small and unhealthy spaces.

The housing deficit is a major global challenge. It is estimated that more than 1 billion people around the world live in precarious or unsafe housing conditions.

The violation of the right to housing is a reality present in different situations and contexts around the world. Vulnerable groups, such as homeless people, quilombolas, fishermen and urban dwellers, often face disrespect for their fundamental rights to decent housing.

Violation of the right to housing is especially evident in minority communities, such as the Quilombolas, who are descendants of runaway slave communities. These communities face the challenge of reclaiming the land they have lived on for generations.

Fishermen are also vulnerable to violations of the right to housing, especially those who depend on coastal natural resources and face expanding industries or infrastructure projects that impact their livelihoods and threaten their communities.

Another affected group are urban occupants, who find themselves with no alternative but to occupy abandoned or underutilized urban areas due to lack of access to adequate and affordable housing. However, these occupations are often seen as irregular and face violent evictions, leaving entire families without a place to live.

Above all, it is essential to promote an approach based on human rights and respect for the dignity of all people. This includes the implementation of inclusive and accessible public policies that guarantee access to adequate housing for all, regardless of their social or economic status.

 

 The Right to Housing in Brazil: A Fundamental Social Right

The right to housing is recognized as one of the social rights provided for in Article 6 of the Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil. Originally, this right was not expressly mentioned in this article, but it was included in 2000 by Constitutional Amendment No. 26. However, housing protection was already guaranteed by other constitutional provisions, such as powers to promote housing programs, the right to minimum wage capable of meeting basic vital needs, and the institute of special adverse possession of urban property.

In addition to constitutional provisions, other international documents also made reference to the right to housing. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) is one of the most important instruments in the recognition of this right in the International System for the Protection of Human Rights. Brazil, as a signatory to this pact, undertakes to effectively protect the right to housing, along with other rights provided therein.

The ICESCR states that everyone has the right to an adequate standard of living, which includes the right to adequate housing. This right is not limited only to what is considered “sufficient”, but recognizes the need for constant improvement in the standard of living. In addition, the pact also recognizes the importance of improving the hygiene aspects of the environment for people's physical and mental health, implying that the place of residence must be healthy.

To ensure the authentic interpretation and maximum effectiveness of the provisions of the ICESCR, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights was established by the Economic and Social Council of the UN. This committee issues General Comments, General Comment No. 4 being particularly relevant to understanding the right to housing. This commentary offers an interpretation of Article 11 of the ICESCR, recognizing housing as a human right. It also highlights fundamental principles related to the right to housing, such as legal security of tenure, availability of services, materials and infrastructure, habitability, accessibility, location and cultural appropriateness.

Thus, the right to housing is guaranteed both by the Brazilian Constitution and by international instruments, and is considered a fundamental social and human right. Its protection seeks to ensure dignified conditions of existence and enable the exercise of other rights, such as the right to property, intimacy and private life. The Brazilian State is committed to making this right effective, promoting public policies and using its available resources, in collaboration with the international community, to guarantee the full exercise of this right.

The inclusion of the right to housing as one of the social rights in the Brazilian Constitution reflects the country's awareness of the dimension of the housing problem and the need to face it. This measure demonstrates Brazil's commitment to eradicating poverty, combating social exclusion and promoting development based on social justice.

The report by the Constitution and Justice and Drafting Commission highlights the importance of the right to housing for the development of other fundamental rights recognized in the Constitution. It is understood that adequate housing is not only essential for the development of the nation, but also for the full realization of the dignity of the human person.

Brazil faces social challenges arising from the poor distribution of income, the absence of the State in certain regions and the impacts of globalization, which contribute to social exclusion, poverty and, consequently, the lack of adequate housing. This situation is evident both in urban and rural areas of the country, covering a large part of the national territory and characterized by housing irregularities and inadequacies.

By ensuring the right to housing, Brazil not only fulfills its international commitments, but also promotes social inclusion, combats poverty and strengthens the foundations for human development and social justice.

 

Housing Precariousness in Brazil: A Challenging Reality

Data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) reveal a sad reality: in Brazil, many people live in precarious housing conditions. This situation is evident in every corner of the country, as we witness through the stories and reports of people who face the challenges posed by the lack of adequate housing on a daily basis.

With each heavy rain or forced eviction, the harsh reality escapes the television screens and reaches the homes of those who have the privilege of a roof over their heads. However, for millions of Brazilians, this reality is a constant. They coexist with unstable slopes, polluted streams, stilt houses and the constant threat of homelessness. The lack of resources to pay the rent, the water and electricity bills at the end of the month, as well as the precarious conditions of the dark and unventilated rooms are daily problems that affect the quality of life of these people.

In addition, many families face the challenge of living in overcrowded housing, where several people are forced to share a precarious space. The lack of privacy and the discomfort generated by this situation directly affect the physical and mental health of residents. In addition, the distance between these peripheral areas and urban centers often results in long hours spent on public transport, making access to job opportunities, education and basic services even more difficult.

Housing precariousness in Brazil is a reflection of a series of structural problems, such as poor income distribution, the absence of effective public policies and the accelerated and disorderly urbanization process. The lack of investment in urban infrastructure and the housing deficit contribute to the perpetuation of this worrying scenario.

The poor population that needs housing ends up occupying areas where the entire network of infrastructure necessary for decent housing has not been effectively implemented. Other “parallel cities” or “hidden cities” appear at different points on the outskirts of large cities – which are precarious, clandestine, illegal and under-equipped.

Favelas represent a complex and challenging reality in the Brazilian urban context. These clusters of precarious and structurally inadequate housing are the result of several factors, such as the lack of effective housing policies, socioeconomic inequality and the occupation of risky areas.

The origin of favelas dates back to a historical process of social exclusion and lack of access to decent housing. Over the years, the lack of regulation and adequate urban planning has contributed to the growth of these informal settlements, often located in areas that are difficult to use, such as hillsides, riverbanks and areas subject to flooding.

Historically, the public policy approach to favelas has been marked by the removal of families to distant areas, resulting in dispersed communities and lack of access to services and opportunities. These actions, although they sought to resolve issues of security and urban planning, often failed by not offering adequate alternatives and violated the rights of those affected.

In contrast, more recently, some municipal administrations have adopted slum upgrading and land regularization approaches, recognizing the importance of promoting the integration of existing communities in the city. These programs aim to improve the living conditions of favela families, providing basic infrastructure, such as access to water, sanitation, electricity and public services, in addition to ensuring the regularization of occupied land.

However, it is important to emphasize that these initiatives are still limited and face significant challenges. The complexity of the favelas, the lack of financial resources and the resistance of some sectors of society can hinder the effective implementation of these projects.

Tenements represent a complex and worrying reality in large cities. These collective housing, generally located in consolidated and deteriorated urban areas, have characteristics that reflect the lack of adequate housing options for a portion of the population.

These spaces are subdivided into small rooms, with a high demographic density, where residents rent, sublet or receive these spaces informally, often without legal lease agreements. Overcrowding is a common feature, with a single room serving multiple functions such as sleeping, cooking, watching TV and studying.

The lack of privacy, adequate ventilation and lighting are recurrent problems in tenements, impairing the quality of life of residents. In addition, shared spaces, such as bathrooms, sinks and tanks, generally have precarious hygiene and sanitation conditions, contributing to the emergence of health problems.

Another aspect to be considered is the exploitation of rent values, where residents are often subjected to abusive conditions and pay high values for these small housing spaces. This situation reflects the lack of proper regulation and oversight by the competent authorities.

While tenements persist as a challenging reality, it is important to highlight that many private and public buildings and houses remain closed, especially in the central region of cities. This contradiction between idle spaces and the lack of adequate housing highlights the need for a more effective and inclusive urban policy.

Clandestine and irregular allotments represent a worrying reality in urban areas, where the absence of legal alternatives for housing leads many people to occupy inappropriate areas. These subdivisions often appear in places such as environmental protection areas, springs or rural areas, which are not intended for housing.

One of the main factors driving the creation of these subdivisions is real estate speculation. The real estate market, often in alliance with the government, occupies these areas, leaving residents unable to obtain proper regularization and urbanization. This situation generates socio-spatial inequality, where the most vulnerable population ends up being harmed by the lack of access to decent housing.

In other cases, irregular subdivisions arise from disorderly occupations, where people seek regularization through the occupation of land without due legality. These occupations are motivated by the need for housing and the lack of viable options offered by the formal real estate market.

In the city of São Paulo, it is estimated that around 3 million people live in irregular allotments, representing approximately 17% of the territory of São Paulo, the equivalent of 250 km². These numbers show the magnitude of the problem and the need to seek effective solutions to regularize and urbanize these areas.

Homelessness is a worrying reality that reflects the lack of access to adequate housing for a significant portion of the low-income population. The absence of affordable housing finance lines and sufficient housing production to meet demand contributes to the increase in the quantitative deficit of housing in the country.

Many families find themselves in a vulnerable situation, without having a place to live, living in precarious conditions, in irregular occupations, tenements, makeshift shelters or on the streets. This situation is aggravated by the lack of effective public policies that guarantee the right to decent housing and promote social inclusion.

The lack of adequate housing finance makes it difficult for low-income families to access the formal real estate market. The high costs involved in acquiring a property, combined with the lack of sufficient income to cover these expenses, make it practically impossible for many families to acquire decent housing through traditional mechanisms.

Housing production aimed at the low-income population is insufficient to meet the existing demand. The lack of investments and the absence of an effective housing policy contribute to the perpetuation of the problem, leaving many families without viable housing options.

Furthermore, the lives of people who do not have a place to live become extremely difficult and vulnerable when they are forced to live in public spaces. These people face a range of challenges and difficulties, from prejudice and violence to adverse weather conditions. Eviction becomes a constant threat, as public space is often considered unsuitable for the presence of homeless people.

The lack of access to decent and safe housing leads many people to seek shelter in public spaces, which are the only places they have left. However, even in these places, they face discrimination and stigmatization by society. Prejudice against homeless people contributes to marginalization and social exclusion, making their lives even more difficult.

The lack of security and protection makes their lives extremely vulnerable, causing them to face risky situations on a daily basis.

Weather conditions also pose a major challenge for homeless people living in public space. Exposure to extreme temperatures, rain, winds and other weather conditions can cause health problems and further aggravate the vulnerability of these people.

It is important to emphasize that eviction becomes a constant reality for those who live on the streets. They are often expelled from public spaces by the authorities or by repression actions, without being offered adequate housing alternatives. This cycle of continuous eviction perpetuates the situation of vulnerability and makes it difficult to find lasting solutions to the issue of homelessness.

It is estimated that in Brazil there are 222,000 people living on the streets, without access to basic health, education, civil identification and citizenship services. This number, based on 2020 data, highlights the urgency of addressing the needs of this vulnerable population.

Experts brought together by the Commission on Human and Minority Rights of the Chamber of Deputies, within the framework of the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) of international recommendations made by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (Acnudh), reached a consensus: access to housing is a central element for overcoming the violations of rights faced by homeless people.

According to the public defender of the Union, the “centrality of the role of housing” is fundamental to solve these problems. Overcoming homelessness cannot be achieved without a serious and effective housing policy for these people. This view was shared by the representative of the federal government who argued for the inclusion of this topic in the National Housing Policy. He pointed out that the current available programs only benefit people with an income of up to R$ 2,000, making it difficult to include the street population.

A new methodology called Housing First, or Housing First, was mentioned as a promising alternative. This approach does not consider housing as a property, but as a service intended for people who cannot afford to pay for it. According to reports, this methodology received investments of R$ 10 million from resources from the Ministry of Women, Family and Human Rights.

During the public hearing, some debaters questioned the effectiveness of the strategies of shelters, republics, social hotels and other provisional modalities. The president of the Commission for Social Policies and Citizen Development and member of the National Council of Justice (CNJ) defended the approval of the bill (PL 5740/16) that creates the National Policy for the Homeless Population.

Another concern raised was the use of hostile architectural techniques in public spaces. The president of the Human Rights Commission proposed the bill (PL 488/21) that prohibits this practice. The objective is to guarantee the dignity and protection of homeless people.

The inadequacy of housing is calculated based on five criteria: 1) lack of infrastructure – households that do not have at least one of the following basic services: electric lighting, general water supply network with internal plumbing, general sewage system or septic tank and garbage collection; 2) excessive densification of own households; 3) absence and exclusive bathroom; 4) inadequate coverage; and 5) urban land inadequacy.

Among the criteria for household inadequacy, the lack of infrastructure is what most affects Brazilian households and continues to be an important challenge to be faced by the bodies responsible for the basic services that make up this type of inadequacy. However, land inadequacy (property on non-legalized land) continues to be the second criterion of inadequacy that most affects urban permanent private households. According to information released by the Ministry of Development, there is currently a housing deficit of 5.8 million homes in the country.

 

The Right to Housing in Africa: Challenges and Prospects

With a population of 59 million people, South Africa has a housing deficit of 2.4 million homes – data from 2020. The South African Constitution is one of the most progressive in the world and recognizes the importance of the right to adequate housing for all its citizens. In the preamble of the Constitution, the commitment to overcome the divisions of the past and establish a society based on democratic values, justice and fundamental human rights is highlighted.

Section 26 of the South African Constitution clearly states that everyone has the right to adequate housing. This includes not only access to a physical structure, but also to conditions that provide safety, health, privacy and dignity. The Constitution recognizes that housing is essential for realizing other fundamental rights, such as the right to health, education and participation in society.

Furthermore, section 28 of the Constitution provides that all children have the right to basic nutrition, shelter, health care and social services. This provision reinforces the importance of adequate housing for the well-being and healthy development of children. It is essential to ensure that children have access to a safe and stable environment that allows them to grow and develop in a healthy way.

The relationship between sections 26 and 28 of the Constitution is important and must be interpreted together. Section 26 outlines the scope and nature of the right to adequate housing, while section 28 reinforces the protection of that right, especially with regard to children. The South African State has an obligation to adopt reasonable and progressive measures to guarantee access to adequate housing for all its citizens, including specific support for children.

In the judgment of the Grootboom case – one of the most emblematic, relevant and known worldwide cases regarding the right to housing occurred in South Africa, in which the interference of the highest South African judicial court in the imposition of the African State of social rights to housing to the plaintiffs in that case – the Supreme Court of South Africa analyzed the right to adequate housing and highlighted the responsibility of the State in guaranteeing access to this fundamental right. Conditions at the site were deplorable; about half of the population were children, there was no running water, no sewerage system and much less garbage service. The area was partially flooded and was close to a highway, greatly increasing the risks for those who lived there. The case highlighted the need for concrete and effective actions to address the housing deficit and provide adequate housing for those who need it most.

Public policies aimed at housing must consider the specific needs and demands of the population, taking into account issues such as social inequality, the housing deficit, land tenure regularization and access to housing finance. In addition, it is essential to ensure the participation of citizens in decisions that affect their living conditions, promoting social inclusion and respect for human rights.

It is important to point out that realizing the right to housing is not an easy task. It requires financial resources, adequate urban planning, partnerships between the public and private sectors, in addition to the engagement of society as a whole. The State has a duty to make efforts to overcome obstacles and ensure that everyone has access to adequate housing, regardless of their socioeconomic status.

 

Challenges of precarious housing in Africa: in search of effective solutions

The removal of residents from the Kibera slum, the largest slum in Africa, located in Nairobi, Kenya, is an important step in the search for solutions to the housing precariousness faced by the population. With around 1 million people living in challenging conditions, the favela is overcrowded, has high crime rates and lacks basic sanitation.

Kenyan authorities began the eviction process, moving the first 1,500 residents to newly built apartments nearby. While this action may offer an initial alternative housing, the challenge of relocating such a large number of people over a period of two to five years is monumental.

The project to eradicate slums in Nairobi, supported by the UN and the World Bank and estimated at US$ 1.2 billion, faces criticism for the slowness of the works. Some residents have contested the removal, claiming ownership of their land in Kibera and seeking to prevent the demolition of their homes. The suspension of the demolitions by the High Court until a new hearing reflects the legal and social complexity involved in the process.

Nairobi is home to several densely populated, insecure slums with poor infrastructure. About half of the city's population resides in slums and informal settlements without formal property ownership. This reality underscores the urgent need for effective public policies that address the issue of housing and seek to guarantee dignified living conditions for all city dwellers.

Kibera has long been known for its overpopulation, poverty and poor sanitary conditions. However, recently, this community is undergoing a process of remodeling and modernization, seeking to improve the living conditions of its inhabitants. For many years, the favela was excluded from government projects, facing a lack of infrastructure and basic services.

Kibera is made up of 15 distinct communities, each with its own character. One of them, called Mashimoni, is characterized by mud huts and tin houses. Until recently, the only formal infrastructure present in the region was a newly built toilet.

However, a change is taking place. Efforts are being made to transform the reality of Kibera, with a focus on improving living conditions and promoting adequate infrastructure. Several projects are underway to provide safer housing, access to basic services such as clean water and sanitation, and economic development opportunities for residents.

While building permanent homes is an important step, Kibera's complete transformation requires a comprehensive and integrated approach. In addition to providing adequate housing, it is essential to invest in infrastructure, basic services, education and economic opportunities for the community. These efforts must be accompanied by training and community engagement programs to ensure the active participation of residents and the sustainable development of the region.

Residents did not have access to adequate toilets, resulting in the use of plastic bags to collect waste, which was disposed of in nearby rivers or on the streets. This unhealthy reality became known as “flying toilets”. The introduction of new flush toilets represents a significant change, providing a more hygienic and safer environment for residents.

In addition, revitalization also seeks to address the challenge of unemployment, especially among youth. Many residents spend their days idle, getting involved in conflicts with the police or resorting to drug and alcohol consumption. As part of the project, young people are being encouraged to become entrepreneurs by selling locally produced food such as cabbage, corn and fish. This initiative aims not only to create employment opportunities, but also to strengthen the local economy and promote sustainability.

An important aspect of Kibera's renewal is the direct involvement of residents. By being encouraged to actively participate in the renovation process, the government believes that residents themselves will become responsible for preserving the progress made. This includes building more homes, with the expectation that the community will continue to develop even after the two-year renovation period ends.

Another significant advance is the introduction of piped water in Kibera. Previously, villagers depended on dirty water coming from the Nairobi dam. Now, the installation of community faucets has been an improvement valued by residents, providing access to clean water compared to the murky and unhealthy waters of the past.

Kibera's revitalization goes beyond the physical improvement of the environment. It represents an opportunity for community empowerment, with residents being empowered to play an active role in building a better future for themselves.

On the other hand, Kenya is experiencing an accelerated process of urbanization, with an annual urban growth rate of 5%. This phenomenon is the result of demographic changes and socioeconomic transformations that are shaping the country. Currently, 34% of the Kenyan population lives in urban areas, and this proportion is expected to increase to 50% by 2050.

However, this rapid urbanization has presented a number of significant challenges. The growth of Kenyan cities has outstripped their ability to provide adequate housing, access to clean water, energy, transport, sanitation and other essential infrastructure. This growing demand has resulted in manifestations of unsustainable pressure, leading to the emergence of unplanned and unsafe settlements, poor sanitation, dangerous pollution, overcrowded and unhealthy housing, as well as poor access to basic services such as education, health and security.

The lack of adequate housing is one of the main challenges facing Kenya's urban population. Rapid population growth has strained the ability to build enough housing to meet demand. This has resulted in the emergence of informal settlements and slums, where living conditions are precarious and housing is often inadequate and unsafe.

Lack of access to clean water and basic sanitation is another critical issue. The rapid increase in urban population has overwhelmed existing water supply systems, resulting in water shortages and lack of access to adequate sanitation. This has serious consequences for public health and the quality of life of residents.

In addition, the lack of efficient and accessible transport infrastructure hinders urban mobility, affecting the quality of life of citizens. Increased traffic, lack of efficient public transport systems and lack of proper planning result in congestion, longer travel times and difficulties in accessing services and opportunities.

These challenges represent an urgent call for action by the government, international organizations and society itself. It is essential to develop policies and programs that address housing, water, energy, transport, sanitation and other infrastructure needs, taking into account the needs of growing urban communities.

According to a United Nations report, it is estimated that Africa needs to build 7,000 new homes every day to meet its growing housing needs. Faced with this demand, prefabrication emerges as a promising solution to face the housing shortage in the region.

Prefabrication, also known as modular construction, involves manufacturing building components in a factory and then assembling them at the destination site. This construction method offers several significant advantages, especially in terms of efficiency, quality and speed of construction.

One of the main advantages of prefabrication is the ability to produce standardized components on a large scale. This allows for the rapid and cost-effective construction of large numbers of homes, meeting Africa's growing housing demand. Additionally, prefabrication allows for tighter quality control, ensuring that homes are built to superior standards and durable materials.

Another important advantage of prefabrication is the reduction of material waste during the construction process. Parts are manufactured to precise specifications, minimizing waste of resources and materials. This contributes to more sustainable and environmentally responsible construction.

Prefabrication also offers design flexibility and adaptation to the specific needs of different communities. Components can be customized to meet size, layout and functionality requirements, ensuring the homes are suitable for the families that will occupy them.

Furthermore, prefabrication can boost the local economy by creating jobs in the construction industry and fostering the development of technical skills. This promotes sustainable economic growth and strengthens local communities.

While prefabrication offers many advantages, its successful implementation requires a comprehensive and collaborative approach.

With hundreds of millions of Africans projected to live in urban areas over the next three decades, it is crucial to address the challenge of lack of adequate housing. Unfortunately, many of these new urban citizens will settle in informal settlements, where lack of access to basic services such as electricity and sanitation is a reality for an estimated 200 million Africans.

However, tackling this housing issue is complex, as the global housing sector is responsible for nearly a third of global greenhouse gas emissions and consumes up to 40% of the planet's total resources. Given this context, it is clear that new approaches are needed to balance the demand for decent housing with the need to reduce environmental impact.

Recognizing this need, UN Environment, the United Nations Human Settlements Program (UN-HABITAT), the Yale Center for Ecosystems in Architecture and associated partners are collaborating to develop intelligent design solutions. An example of these efforts is a project on display at UN Environment headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya: a 3D-printed modular structure made from biodegradable bamboo.

Presented for the first time at the fourth United Nations Environment Assembly, this pavilion seeks to spark ideas and foster debate on how future biomaterials processes can contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the New Urban Agenda and the Paris climate agreement.

The structure demonstrates how post-agricultural waste such as bamboo, coconut, rice, soy and corn can be transformed into building materials. In addition, it highlights how solar energy and water systems can make homes self-sufficient, with zero carbon emissions. The integration of plant walls also illustrates how micro-farming can be viable in urban spaces. All of these resources are monitored and managed by sensors and digital controls, maximizing efficiency and sustainable use of resources.

This innovative approach seeks not only to meet the housing needs of the population, but also to minimize the environmental impact. By turning waste into building materials, harnessing renewable energy and encouraging sustainable agricultural practices, this project exemplifies how intelligent design can help achieve a balance between human needs and planetary boundaries.

With the growing housing demand in the country, the government aims to build more than 500,000 affordable homes in the next five years. To achieve this ambitious low-cost housing agenda, it is crucial that the construction industry embraces technological change and embraces innovation in sustainable construction. Such an approach would not only reduce average manufacturing and housing costs, but would also have an aggregate effect on reducing the energy embodied in buildings.

Adopting sustainable and innovative construction is critical to addressing the global housing challenge. By integrating scientific and technical advances in energy, water and material systems, architecture can play a key role in creating affordable and environmentally conscious housing solutions. A balance is needed between energy efficiency, the use of renewable resources and the incorporation of sustainable materials throughout the construction process.

Furthermore, architecture must be sensitive to the cultural and aesthetic aspirations of different regions. Sustainable housing solutions should not be a one-size-fits-all approach, but rather tailored to local needs and identities. This requires a deep understanding of the communities, their cultures, traditional building practices and aesthetic values, to ensure that the houses are welcoming, functional and respect the identity of each location.

By adopting innovative technologies such as 3D printing, modular construction and the use of recyclable materials, it is possible to significantly reduce manufacturing costs and speed up the construction process. These approaches not only offer a cost-effective alternative to conventional construction, but also reduce material waste and the associated environmental footprint.

 

The Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution: Freedoms and Protections

 In recent years, India has seen impressive economic growth and is considered one of the rising economies on the global stage. It is the second most populous country in the world, known for its rich cultural heritage, beautiful palaces and vibrant diversity. However, behind this exuberant image lies a sobering reality: around 70% of the Indian population lives in poverty. One of the areas where this inequality is evident is access to basic sanitation and treated water, which are still the privilege of a minority.

Although India has achieved great achievements in economic and technological development, many social challenges still persist, especially in rural areas.

Inadequate sanitation is a serious issue in India. Many rural communities do not have proper toilets or sewer systems, which leads to unsanitary conditions and the spread of disease. The lack of proper sanitation facilities also affects the safety and dignity of women, who face risks when carrying out their basic needs outdoors.

In addition, access to clean and treated water is a challenge for a large part of the rural population. Many communities rely on unsafe water sources, such as unprotected wells or polluted rivers, which increase the risk of waterborne diseases. Water scarcity is also a reality in several regions, resulting in additional difficulties for agriculture and people's daily activities.

Rural poverty in India is also related to rudimentary farming techniques adopted in some areas. Many farmers face challenges such as lack of access to modern resources, low productivity and vulnerability to climate change. These conditions make it difficult to break out of the cycle of poverty, perpetuating the lack of development in these regions.

The Constitution of India enshrines several fundamental rights that guarantee freedoms and protections for its citizens. Among these rights, freedom of expression stands out, which allows people to express their opinions, ideas and beliefs without fear of retaliation or censorship by the government. This is essential to promote public debate, diversity of thought and the active participation of citizens in building society.

With regard to movement within Indian territory, the Constitution guarantees the right to free movement, allowing citizens to move freely within the country, choose their place of residence and settle wherever they wish. This promotes individual freedom and the pursuit of opportunities in different regions, contributing to cultural diversity and exchange between different parts of the country.

Furthermore, the Indian Constitution establishes that it is the duty of the State to improve the level of nutrition, living conditions and public health. This state responsibility reflects the commitment to promote social well-being, guaranteeing access to adequate food, dignified living conditions and quality health services for all citizens.

The disparity between wealth and poverty is particularly evident when it comes to access to basic sanitation and clean water.

Limited access to basic sanitation is one of the biggest challenges faced by the Indian population. Millions of people lack access to adequate and safe toilets, resulting in unsanitary conditions and the spread of disease. The lack of adequate sanitation facilities also disproportionately affects women, who face health and safety risks when they need to find adequate facilities to meet their basic needs.

This situation is aggravated by socioeconomic inequality, which is reflected in both urban and rural areas. In urban areas, although there is developed infrastructure, there are still slum neighborhoods where living conditions are precarious. In rural areas, the lack of investment in basic sanitation and water supply infrastructure is a constant challenge.

Lack of access to clean, safe water leads to an increase in waterborne diseases and contributes to the never-ending cycle of poverty, as poor health prevents people from developing properly.

The lack of adequate housing is one of the biggest social problems facing India, a country with a population of 1.1 billion, the second largest in the world after China. The situation is particularly acute in large urban centers such as Mumbai, where homelessness is a significant challenge. According to Mike Davis, author of the book “Planeta Slum”, approximately 55% of the inhabitants of urban areas in India live in slums, totaling about 158 million people, with 6.3 million of them living on the streets, where they face precarious living conditions. life.

The average rent for shacks in the slums of large Indian cities such as Mumbai is around 200 rupees per month (equivalent to US$ 5). The common view among the Indian middle class that the poor are happy is criticized by Indian journalist Kenneth Lobo, who documented the demolition of one of India's largest slums, Yamuna Pushta, in New Delhi in 2004. Lobo argues that this perception is a myth, highlighting that no mother wants to raise her child in a favela.

In addition to homelessness, India faces other significant social challenges. The country has a high illiteracy rate, reaching 35% of the population, and a relatively low life expectancy, with an average of 62.5 years. The problem of child malnutrition is also alarming, with around 60 million malnourished children, surpassing the rates in sub-Saharan Africa. Each year, more than 2.5 million Indian children die from this condition, as indicated by the third National Family Health Survey. These social indicators are disappointing for a country that registers economic growth above 8% per year.

However, over time, India has managed to significantly reduce poverty in the country. The number of people living below the poverty line decreased from 44% of the population in 1983 to 26% in 2000, according to the 2001 Census. The decline in poverty was more pronounced during the 1990s, when economic liberalization was implemented and boosted the country's economic growth. It is estimated that currently almost 300 million Indians live on less than US$ 1 per day.

The Indian government has implemented several initiatives to improve access to basic sanitation and clean water, such as the campaign “Swachh Bharat Abhiyan” (Mission for a Clean India) and the “Jal Jeevan Mission” (Mission for Clean Water). These initiatives aim to raise awareness of the importance of hygiene, build adequate sanitation facilities, and provide access to clean water throughout the country.

Housing in India is a complex phenomenon that reflects an intricate interplay of economic, social, environmental and political factors. The country's urban fabric is made up of a variety of types of settlements, from informal settlements to residential colonies and gated communities. These divisions are often based on social and economic identity, resulting in spatial segregation.

Before the rapid urbanization process, Indian neighborhoods were characterized by a strong connection between people, reflecting local needs and customs. Residential architecture has evolved organically over decades to meet community demands. These living spaces were designed to promote coexistence and facilitate social interaction.

The relationship between culture, community and architecture was inextricably linked, with architecture responding to the sociocultural context and traditional ways of life. Architects played a key role in creating living, culturally informed systems that adapted to the needs and social ideals of each community.

There are contemporary examples of housing projects in India that seek to re-establish this connection between culture, community and architecture. One such example is DCOOP's collective housing project, which draws inspiration from the vernacular chawl settlements found in western India. These semi-open spaces, known as chawls, are meeting points and social interaction, offering shelter from the hot and humid climate. The project seeks to incorporate these cultural characteristics, providing multifunctional spaces adaptable to the needs of families.

Another example is the MVRDV project, which addresses income inequality and social segregation by providing affordable housing for different sectors of the urban population. The project is conceived as a vertical city, with a mixture of apartments of different sizes and types, allowing the coexistence of families of different compositions. Public and community spaces are designed to promote interaction between neighbors, contributing to greater social cohesion.

The notion that homes must adapt and grow with families is also an important aspect of Indian housing. The “traditional add-on building” strategy and Charles Correa's Belapur Housing project are examples of approaches that allow for the gradual expansion of homes as the family budget allows. This gives residents a sense of ownership and the opportunity to customize their homes to their needs and desires.

These contemporary projects illustrate how the relationship between culture, community and architecture remains relevant in India.

India has been experiencing significant population growth and projections indicate that it will soon become the most populous country in the world, surpassing China. While China has seen a population decline due to lower birth rates, India has seen an increase of around 210 million people over the past twelve years.

This population explosion is accompanied by impressive economic growth. India has already surpassed the United Kingdom and became the fifth largest economy in the world in 2022. With ambitious plans, the country aims to become the third largest global economy by 2029, competing with the United States and China. It is estimated that by mid-century, around 20% of the world's workforce will be Indians.

India benefits from a young population, with an average age of approximately 28 years compared to the US (38 years) and China (39 years). This has allowed the authorities to expand the growth of the industrial sector, harnessing the potential of its young and growing workforce.

However, despite these advances, it still faces significant social challenges and persistent inequalities. The country remains one of the poorest in the G-20 in terms of per capita income, and a large portion of its economy is informal. The attraction of foreign companies is mainly based on the low cost of Indian labor. Furthermore, India is still predominantly agricultural, and its exports account for only 2% of the international volume.

While progress has been made in reducing multidimensional poverty, with 415 million people lifted out of poverty over the past 15 years, India still faces massive income inequality. Only 10% of the population owns 77% of the country's wealth.

 

Green Cities of the Future: Innovations in Sustainable Construction

 

The great green city of the future is a scenario desired by many, a place where the economy and the environment are in perfect harmony. In this vision, communities are sustainable and resilient, designed to promote the well-being of all their inhabitants.

 

A fundamental feature of these cities is the presence of healthy neighborhoods, where nature plays a central role. Parks, gardens, green areas and open spaces are carefully integrated into the urban fabric, offering benefits to both humans and the environment. These areas provide a refuge from the hustle and bustle of urban life, offering spaces for relaxation, recreational activities and contact with nature.

Furthermore, the great green city of the future seeks to ensure that the benefits of nature are accessible to all. It's not just about creating green spaces, it's also about ensuring that these spaces are equitably distributed throughout the city, regardless of residents' income or location. Everyone should have the opportunity to enjoy a healthy and revitalizing natural environment.

These cities are also designed with environmental sustainability in mind. They seek to minimize the consumption of natural resources, adopt recycling and reuse practices, in addition to promoting the use of renewable energies. The urban infrastructure is intelligently planned, aiming at energy efficiency, accessible public transport and the reduction of carbon emissions.

In the big green city of the future, the economy is also resilient. It is driven by sustainable sectors such as renewable energy, urban agriculture and green technologies. Entrepreneurship and innovation are encouraged, promoting the development of businesses that contribute to the health of the planet and the well-being of people.

This vision of the green city of the future is not just a utopian dream, but an urgent need. As we face increasingly complex environmental and social challenges, it is crucial to rethink how we build our cities. The great green city of the future represents a sustainable path, in which economic progress goes hand in hand with the preservation of the environment and the well-being of all citizens.

In the 21st century, with advancing urbanization and increasing environmental awareness, there is a need to rethink global construction practices and seek nature-based solutions for the cities of the future. Traditional construction, which uses toxic and energy-intensive materials such as concrete and steel, has had significant impacts on the environment and natural ecosystems.

In this context, experts in architecture and sustainability, such as Anna Dyson, director of the Center for Ecosystems in Architecture at Yale University, advocate the adoption of innovative approaches that value nature and seek more sustainable solutions for urban construction. These solutions, known as “nature-based solutions”, aim to create built environments that harmoniously integrate with the natural environment and are inspired by the principles of nature.

An initiative that exemplifies this approach is the “Ecological Living Module” developed by Yale University. This module is a demonstration building that uses renewable energy and is designed to minimize the use of resources such as water. It serves as an example of how architecture can adapt to the needs of sustainable development, demonstrating the feasibility and importance of more conscious building practices.

In addition to being environmentally friendly, nature-based solutions can also bring a number of benefits to cities. These approaches can contribute to improving air quality, reducing energy consumption, efficient water management, promoting urban biodiversity and increasing resilience to the impacts of climate change. By integrating natural elements such as green areas, natural drainage systems and the smart use of materials, it is possible to create healthier, more sustainable and pleasant urban environments for its inhabitants.

With the growing debate about the consequences of human actions on the climate, the search for solutions that promote a better society has intensified. One of the aspects in which these solutions can be applied is civil construction, with the development of sustainable apartments and houses. These constructions not only contribute to achieving the targets set for 2030, but also have the potential to raise awareness and make more conscious choices part of everyday life.

Sustainable homes are constructions that are designed and built with special care to cause the least possible impact on the environment, both during construction and throughout its useful life. From the initial design, sustainable solutions are considered that aim to optimize the use of resources and reduce energy consumption.

One of the most important aspects of sustainable homes is the careful selection of materials used in construction. This includes the use of recycled materials, such as recycled glass and recycled steel, as well as wood from reforestation and the use of ecological tiles and bricks. These materials are chosen with the aim of reducing the environmental impact of construction and promoting sustainability.

The issue of water and energy is also fundamental in sustainable homes. Water scarcity and the environmental impacts caused by power generation are global concerns. Therefore, these houses usually have water reuse systems, such as rainwater collection for use in bathrooms and gardens. In addition, the installation of solar panels to generate clean and renewable energy is common in sustainable homes. These solutions allow homes to be more self-sufficient in terms of resources, reducing dependence on scarce and polluting resources.

Another advantage of sustainable houses is their value in terms of construction costs. With the use of recyclable materials and the optimization of resources, these houses can have a lower cost compared to more traditional construction options. Although the biggest investment may be in finishing, the savings obtained in other aspects compensates for this factor.

Landscaping is another important aspect of sustainable homes. The planning of landscapes that use plants to generate shade and make the house cooler, such as green roofs, contributes to thermal comfort and to the reduction of energy consumption for cooling.

In addition, the architectural design of sustainable houses is carefully designed to favor the entry of natural light, reducing the need for artificial lighting during the day. Light colors and sustainable furniture are also considered, contributing to the aesthetics and comfort of spaces.

However, for these solutions to be adopted on a large scale, a joint commitment from governments, architects, urban planners, construction companies and local communities is required. It is essential to invest in research and development, to promote public policies that encourage the adoption of sustainable building practices and to make society aware of the importance of a built environment that respects and values nature.